伽利略,17世纪初的一天,荷兰小镇的一家眼镜店的主人利伯希（Hans Lippershey）,为检查磨制出来的透镜质量,把一块凸透镜和一块凹镜排成一条线,通过透镜看过去,发现远处的教堂塔尖好象变大拉近了,于是在无意中发现了望远镜的秘密1608年他为自己制作的望远镜申请专利,并遵从当局的要求,造了一个双筒望远镜
1688年,法国物理学家德尼斯 帕潘用圆筒和活塞制造出第一台简单蒸汽机十年后,英国人托伊斯发明了蒸汽抽水机纽科曼创造了空气蒸汽机1782年,英国的仪器修理工瓦特发明了联协式蒸汽机
A telescope is an instrument designed for the observation of remote objects by the collection of electromagnetic radiation The first known practically functioning telescopes were invented in the Netherlands at the beginning of the 17th century "Telescopes" can refer to a whole range of instruments operating in most regions of the electromagnetic spectrum
The word "telescope" (from the Greek tele = 'far' and skopein = 'to look or see'; teleskopos = 'far-seeing') was coined in 1611 by the Greek mathematician Giovanni Demisiani for one of Galileo Galilei's instruments presented at a banquet at the Accademia dei Lincei[1][2][3] In the Starry Messenger Galileo had used the term "perspicillum"
The earliest evidence of working telescopes were the refracting telescopes that appeared in the Netherlands in 1608 Their development is credited to three individuals: Hans Lippershey and Zacharias Janssen, who were spectacle makers in Middelburg, and Jacob Metius of Alkmaar[4] Galileo greatly improved upon these designs the following year
The idea that a mirror could be used as an objective instead of a lens was being investigated soon after the invention of the refracting telescope[5] The potential advantages of using parabolic mirrors, primarily reduction of spherical aberration with no chromatic aberration, led to many proposed designs and several attempts to build reflecting telescopes[6] In 1668, Isaac Newton built the first practical reflecting telescope that bears his name, the Newtonian reflector
The invention of the achromatic lens in 1733 partially corrected color aberrations present in the simple lens and enabled the construction of shorter, more functional refracting telescopes Reflecting telescopes, though not limited by the color problems seen in refractors, were hampered by the use of fast tarnishing speculum metal mirrors employed during the 18th and early 19th century—a problem alleviated by the introduction of silver coated glass mirrors in 1857,[7] and aluminized mirrors in 1932[8] The maximum physical size limit for refracting telescopes is about 1 meter (40 inches), dictating that the vast majority of large optical researching telescopes built since the turn of the 20th century have been reflectors The largest reflecting telescopes currently have objectives larger then 10 m (33 feet)
The 20th century also saw the development of telescopes that worked in a wide range of wavelengths from radio to gamma-rays The first purpose built radio telescope went into operation in 1937 Since then, a tremendous variety of complex astronomical instruments have been developedThe name "telescope" covers a wide range of instruments and is difficult to define They all have the attribute of collecting electromagnetic radiation so it can be studied or analyzed in some manner The most common type is the optical telescope; other types also exist and are listed below
Optical telescopes
50 cm refracting telescope at Nice Observatory
Main article: Optical telescope
An optical telescope gathers and focuses light mainly from the visible part of the electromagnetic spectrum (although some work in the infrared and ultraviolet) Optical telescopes increase the apparent angular size of distant objects as well as their apparent brightness In order for the image to be observed, photographed, studied, and sent to a computer, telescopes work by employing one or more curved optical elements—usually made from glass—lenses, or mirrors to gather light and other electromagnetic radiation to bring that light or radiation to a focal point Optical telescopes are used for astronomy and in many non-astronomical instruments, including: theodolites (including transits), spotting scopes, monoculars, binoculars, camera lenses, and spyglasses There are three main types:
The refracting telescope which uses lenses to form an image
The reflecting telescope which uses an arrangement of mirrors to form an image
The catadioptric telescope which uses mirrors combined with lenses to form an image
Other optical telescopes:
Infrared telescopes
Submillimetre telescopes
Ultraviolet telescopes
Fresnel Imager
Radio telescopes
Main article: Radio telescope
The Very Large Array at Socorro, New Mexico, United States
Radio telescopes are directional radio antennas used for radio astronomy The dishes are sometimes constructed of a conductive wire mesh whose openings are smaller than the wavelength being observed Multi-element Radio telescopes are constructed from pairs or larger groups of these dishes to synthesize large 'virtual' apertures that are similar in size to the separation between the telescopes; this process is known as aperture synthesis As of 2005, the current record array size is many times the width of the Earth—utilizing space-based Very Long Baseline Interferometry (VLBI) telescopes such as the Japanese HALCA (Highly Advanced Laboratory for Communications and Astronomy) VSOP (VLBI Space Observatory Program) satellite Aperture synthesis is now also being applied to optical telescopes using optical interferometers (arrays of optical telescopes) and aperture masking interferometry at single reflecting telescopes Radio telescopes are also used to collect microwave radiation, which is used to collect radiation when any visible light is obstructed or faint, such as from quasars Some radio telescopes are used by programs such as SETI and the Arecibo Observatory to search for exterrestrial life
High energy particle telescopes
The Einstein Observatory, an X-ray telescope originally named the HEAO B (High Energy Astrophysical Observatory B)
High-energy astronomy requires specialized telescopes to make observations since most of these particles go through most metals and glasses
X-ray telescopes use Wolter telescopes composed of ring-shaped 'glancing' mirrors made of heavy metals that are able to reflect the rays just a few degrees The mirrors are usually a section of a rotated parabola and a hyperbola, or ellipse In 1952, Hans Wolter outlined 3 ways a telescope could be built using only this kind of mirror[9][10]
Gamma-ray telescopes refrain from focusing completely and use coded aperture masks: the patterns of the shadow the mask creates can be reconstructed to form an image
X-ray and Gamma-ray telescopes are usually on Earth-orbiting satellites or high-flying balloons since the Earth's atmosphere is opaque to this part of the electromagnetic spectrum
In other types of high energy particle telescopes there is no image-forming optical system Cosmic-ray telescopes usually consist of an array of different detector types spread out over a large area A Neutrino telescope consists of a large mass of water or ice, surrounded by an array of sensitive light detectors known as photomultiplier tubes
1609年伽利略把自己磨出来的两个镜片装在一个圆筒里制成了第一架望远镜，他说，这个望远镜可以“使50英里以外的物体，看起来就像在5英里以内那样”。伽利略经过不断的改进，把望远镜的放大倍数大大的提高，直接提高到了30倍以上。
望远镜的发展史 17世纪初的一天，荷兰小镇的一家眼镜店的主人利伯希（Hans Lippershey），为检查磨制出来的透镜质量，把一块凸透镜和一块凹镜排成一条线，通过透镜看过去，发现远处的教堂塔尖好象变大拉近了，于是在无意中发现了望远镜的秘密。1608年他为自己制作的望远镜申请专利，并遵从当局的要求，造了一个双筒望远镜。据说小镇好几十个眼镜匠都声称发明了望远镜，不过一般都认为利伯希是望远镜的发明者。 望远镜发明的消息很快在欧洲各国流传开了，意大利科学家伽利略得知这个消息之后，就自制了一个。第一架望远镜只能把物体放大3倍。一个月之后，他制作的第二架望远镜可以放大8倍，第三架望远镜可以放大到20倍。1609年10月他作出了能放大30倍的望远镜。伽里略用自制的望远镜观察夜空，第一次发现了月球表面高低不平，覆盖着山脉并有火山口的裂痕。此后又发现了木星的4个卫星、太阳的黑子运动，并作出了太阳在转动的结论。几乎同时，德国的天文学家开普勒也开始研究望远镜，他在《屈光学》里提出了另一种天文望远镜，这种望远镜由两个凸透镜组成，与伽利略的望远镜不同，比伽利略望远镜视野宽阔。但开普勒没有制造他所介绍的望远镜。沙伊纳于1613年—1617年间首次制作出了这种望远镜，他还遵照开普勒的建议制造了有第三个凸透镜的望远镜，把二个凸透镜做的望远镜的倒像变成了正像。沙伊纳做了8台望远镜，一台一台地云观察太阳，无论哪一台都能看到相同形状的太阳黑子。因此，他打消了不少人认为黑子可能是透镜上的尘埃引起的错觉，证明了黑子确实是观察到的真实存在。在观察太阳时沙伊纳装上特殊遮光玻璃，伽利略则没有加此保护装置，结果伤了眼睛，最后几乎失明。荷兰的惠更斯为了减少折射望远镜的色差在1665年做了一台筒长近6米的望远镜，来探查土星的光环，后来又做了一台将近41米长的望远镜。 使用透镜作物镜的望远镜称为折射望远镜，即使加长镜筒，精密加工透镜，也不能消除色象差，牛顿曾认为折射望远镜的色差是不可救药，后来证明过分悲观的。1668年他发明了反射式望远镜，斛决了色差的问题。第一台反望远镜非常小，望远镜内的反射镜口径只有25厘米，但是已经能清楚地看到木星的卫星、金星的盈亏等（见附图1）。1672年牛顿做了一台更大的反射望远镜，送给了英国皇家学会，至今还俣存在皇家学会的图书馆里。1733年英国人哈尔制成第一台消色差折射望远镜。1758年伦敦的宝兰德也制成同样的望远镜，他采用了折射率不同的玻璃分别制造凸透镜和凹透镜，把各自形成的有色边缘相互抵消。但是要制造很大透镜不容易，目前世界上最大的一台折射式望远镜直径为102厘米，安装在雅弟斯天文台。1793年英国赫瑟尔（William Herschel），制做了反射式望远镜，反射镜直径为130厘米，用铜锡合金制成，重达1吨。1845年英国的帕森（William Parsons）制造的反射望远镜，反射镜直径为182米。1917年，胡克望远镜（Hooker Telescope）在美国加利福尼亚的威尔逊山天文台建成。它的主反射镜口径为100英寸。正是使用这座望远镜，哈勃（Edwin Hubble）发现了宇宙正在膨胀的惊人事实。1930年，德国人施密特（Bernhard Schmidt）将折射望远镜和反射望远镜的优点（折射望远镜像差小但有色差而且尺寸越大越昂贵，反射望远镜没有色差、造价低廉且反射镜可以造得很大，但存在像差）结合起来，制成了第一台折反射望远镜。 战后反射式望远镜在天文观测中发展很快，1950年在帕洛玛山上安装了一台直径508米的海尔（Hale）反射式望远镜。1969年在前苏联高加索北部的帕斯土霍夫山上安装了直径6米的反射镜。1990年，NASA将哈勃太空望远镜送入轨道，然而，由于镜面故障，直到1993年宇航员完成太空修复并更换了透镜后，哈勃望远镜才开始全面发挥作用。由于可以不受地球大气的干扰，哈勃望远镜的图像清晰度是地球上同类望远镜拍下图像的10倍。1993年，美国在夏威夷莫纳克亚山上建成了口径10米的“凯克望远镜”，其镜面由36块18米的反射镜拼合而成。2001设在智利的欧洲南方天文台研制完成了“超大望远镜”(VLT)，它由4架口径8米的望远镜组成，其聚光能力与一架16米的反射望远镜相当。现在，一批正在筹建中的望远镜又开始对莫纳克亚山上的白色巨人兄弟发起了冲击。这些新的竞争参与者包括30米口径的“加利福尼亚极大望远镜”（California Extremely Large Telescope，简称CELT），20米口径的大麦哲伦望远镜（Giant Magellan Telescope，简称GMT）和100米口径的绝大望远镜（Overwhelming Large Telescope，简称OWL）。它们的倡议者指出，这些新的望远镜不仅可以提供像质远胜于哈勃望远镜照片的太空，而且能收集到更多的光，对100亿年前星系形成时初态恒星和宇宙气体的情况有更多的了解，并看清楚遥远恒星周围的行
第一架反射式望远镜诞生于1668年。牛顿经过多次磨制非球面的透镜均告失败后，决定采用球面反射镜作为主镜。他用25cm直径的金属，磨制成一块凹面反射镜，并在主镜的焦点前面放置了一个与主镜成45度角的反射镜，使经主镜反射后的会聚光经反射镜以90度角反射出镜筒后到达目镜。这种系统称为牛顿式反射望远镜。它的球面镜虽然会产生一定的象差，但用反射镜代替折射镜却是一个巨大的成功。
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